Non-covalent modification of graphene-based chemical sensors

ABSTRACT

Embodiments herein relate to chemical sensors, devices and systems including the same, and related methods. In an embodiment, a medical device is included having a graphene varactor including a graphene layer and a self-assembled monolayer disposed on an outer surface of the graphene layer through non-covalent interactions between the self-assembled monolayer and a π-electron system of graphene. The self-assembled monolayer includes one or more pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives thereof. Other embodiments are also included herein.

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/889,387, filed Aug. 20, 2019, the content of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

FIELD

Embodiments herein relate to chemical sensors, devices and systems including the same, and related methods. More specifically, embodiments herein relate to chemical sensors based on the non-covalent surface modification of graphene.

BACKGROUND

The accurate detection of diseases can allow clinicians to provide appropriate therapeutic interventions. The early detection of diseases can lead to better treatment outcomes. Diseases can be detected using many different techniques including analyzing tissue samples, analyzing various bodily fluids, diagnostic scans, genetic sequencing, and the like.

Some disease states result in the production of specific chemical compounds. In some cases, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released into a gaseous sample of a patient can be hallmarks of certain diseases. The detection of these compounds or differential sensing of the same can allow for the early detection of particular disease states.

SUMMARY

In a first aspect, a medical device is included having a graphene varactor including a graphene layer and a self-assembled monolayer disposed on an outer surface of the graphene layer through non-covalent interactions between the self-assembled monolayer and a π-electron system of graphene. The self-assembled monolayer can include one or more pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives thereof.

In a second aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, the self-assembled monolayer provides a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.9.

In a third aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, the self-assembled monolayer provides a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.98.

In a fourth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, the self-assembled monolayer provides coverage over the graphene from 50% to 150% by surface area.

In a fifth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, can include a plurality of graphene varactors configured in an array on the medical device.

In a sixth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, the self-assembled monolayer can include substituted pillarenes of the formula:

where each R⁰ can independently include: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and where each R¹ can independently include: —H; —OH; ═O; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof, an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X where X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO², —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof; where each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and where n is an integer from at least 5 to 15.

In a seventh aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, where at least some of the R⁰ substituents differ from the other R⁰ substituents.

In an eighth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, the self-assembled monolayer can include substituted pillarenes of the formula:

where each R⁰ can independently include: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and where each R¹ can independently include: —H; —OH; ═O; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof, an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X where X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof; where each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and where x is an integer from at least 0 to 15, y is an integer from at least 0 to 15, and n is an integer from at least 5 to 15.

In a ninth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, the self-assembled monolayer can include substituted calixarenes can include any of:

where each R⁰ can independently include: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and where each R¹ can independently include: —H; —OH; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof, an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X where X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof; where each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and where n is an integer from at least 3 to 15.

In a tenth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, the self-assembled monolayer can include substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins of the formula:

where each Z can independently include: —S or —O; and where each R¹ can independently include: —H; —OH; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof, an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof; —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X where X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof; where each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and where n is an integer from at least 5 to 10.

In an eleventh aspect, a method of modifying a surface of graphene is provided. The method can include forming a self-assembled monolayer disposed on an outer surface of a graphene layer through non-covalent interactions between the self-assembled monolayer and a π-electron system of graphene. The self-assembled monolayer can include one or more pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives thereof. The method can include quantifying an extent of surface coverage of the self-assembled monolayer using contact angle goniometry, Raman spectroscopy, or X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

In a twelfth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, the method further can include selecting derivatized graphene layers that exhibit a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.9.

In a thirteenth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, the method further can include selecting derivatized graphene layers that exhibit a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.98.

In a fourteenth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, the self-assembled monolayer suitable for use with the methods herein can include substituted pillarenes of the formula:

where each R⁰ can independently include: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and where each R¹ can independently include: —H; —OH; ═O; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof, an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X where X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH², —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH², —R²NO², —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)², —R²OSO(OH)², or any derivatives or combinations thereof, where each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and where n is an integer from at least 5 to 15.

In a fifteenth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, where the self-assembled monolayer includes substituted pillarenes of the formula:

where each R⁰ can independently include: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and where each R can independently include: —H; —OH; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof, an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X where X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof; where each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and where x is an integer from at least 0 to 15, y is an integer from at least 0 to 15, and n is an integer from at least 5 to 15.

In a sixteenth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, where the self-assembled monolayer includes substituted calixarenes can include any of:

where each R⁰ can independently include: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and where each R¹ can independently include: —H; —OH; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof, an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X where X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof; where each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and where n is an integer from at least 3 to 15.

In a seventeenth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, where the self-assembled monolayer includes substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins can include:

where each R⁰ can independently include: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and where each R¹ can independently include: —H; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof, an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X where X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof; where each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and where n is an integer from at least 5 to 10.

In an eighteenth aspect, a method for detecting an analyte is included. The method can include collecting a gaseous sample and contacting the gaseous sample with one or more graphene varactors. Each of the one or more graphene varactors can include a graphene layer and a self-assembled monolayer disposed on an outer surface of the graphene layer through non-covalent interactions between the self-assembled monolayer and a π-electron system of graphene. The self-assembled monolayer can include at least one selected from the group consisting of pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives thereof.

In a nineteenth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, the method further can include measuring a differential response in an electrical property of the one or more graphene varactors due to binding of one or more analytes present in the gaseous sample.

In a twentieth aspect, in addition to one or more of the preceding or following aspects, or in the alternative to some aspects, the electrical property can be selected from the group consisting of capacitance or resistance.

This summary is an overview of some of the teachings of the present application and is not intended to be an exclusive or exhaustive treatment of the present subject matter. Further details are found in the detailed description and appended claims. Other aspects will be apparent to persons skilled in the art upon reading and understanding the following detailed description and viewing the drawings that form a part thereof, each of which is not to be taken in a limiting sense. The scope herein is defined by the appended claims and their legal equivalents.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

Aspects may be more completely understood in connection with the following figures (FIGS.), in which:

FIG. 1 is a schematic perspective view of a graphene varactor in accordance with various embodiments herein.

FIG. 2 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a portion of a graphene varactor in accordance with various embodiments herein.

FIG. 3 is a schematic top plan view of a chemical sensor element in accordance with various embodiments herein.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a portion of a measurement zone in accordance with various embodiments herein.

FIG. 5 is a circuit diagram of a passive sensor circuit and a portion of a reading circuit in accordance with various embodiments herein.

FIG. 6 is a schematic view of a system for sensing gaseous analytes in accordance with various embodiments herein.

FIG. 7 is a schematic view of a system for sensing gaseous analytes in accordance with various embodiments herein.

FIG. 8 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a portion of a chemical sensor element in accordance with various embodiments herein.

FIG. 9 is a representative plot of relative surface coverage as a function of concentration in accordance with various embodiments herein.

FIG. 10 is a representative plot of relative surface coverage as a function of the logarithm of concentration presented in FIG. 10, in accordance with various embodiments herein.

FIG. 11 is a representative plot of relative surface coverage as a function of concentration in accordance with various embodiments herein.

FIG. 12 is a representative plot of relative surface coverage as a function of the logarithm of concentration presented in FIG. 11, in accordance with various embodiments herein.

While embodiments are susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specifics thereof have been shown by way of example and drawings, and will be described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the scope herein is not limited to the particular aspects described. On the contrary, the intention is to cover modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments herein relate to chemical sensors, medical devices and systems including the same, and related methods for detecting chemical compounds in gaseous samples, such as, but not limited to, the breath of a patient. In some embodiments, the chemical sensors herein can be based on the non-covalent surface modification of graphene with various surface receptors, including pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes. As used herein, the term “pillarene” can be used interchangeably with the term “pillararene.”

Graphene is a form of carbon containing a single layer of carbon atoms in a hexagonal lattice. Graphene has a high strength and stability due to its tightly packed sp² hybridized orbitals, where each carbon atom forms one sigma (a) bond each with its three neighboring carbon atoms and has one p orbital projected out of the hexagonal plane. The p orbitals of the hexagonal lattice can hybridize to form a π band on the surface of graphene that is suitable for non-covalent electrostatic interactions, including π-π stacking interactions with other molecules.

Pillarenes are a group of heterocyclic macrocycles having 5 to 15 modified hydroquinone subunits, each connected by a methylene (—CH₂—) bridge. The basic core structure of a pillarene is as follows:

The hydroquinone subunits of the pillarenes create a symmetrical pillar-like structure defining a central cavity. Because the central cavity can capture analytes of interest for chemical sensing, the pillarenes are an emerging class of macrocycles used in host-guest chemistry.

Calixarenes are a group of heterocyclic macrocycles having from 3 to 15 aromatic components derived from compounds such as phenol, where each component is connected by a substituted or unsubstituted methylene (—CH₂—) bridge. One exemplary structure of a calixarene is as follows:

The subunits of the calixarenes can create a cup-like shape defining a central cavity. Because the central cavity can capture analytes of interest for chemical sensing, the calixarenes are an emerging class of macrocycles used in host-guest chemistry.

Cyclodextrins are a group of cyclic oligosaccharides having from 5 to 10 glucose subunits linked by 1,4 glycosidic bonds, including the α-, β- and γ-peralkylated cyclodextrins and derivatives thereof. The basic core structure of a peralkylated cyclodextrin is as follows:

The glucose subunits of cyclodextrins can create a toroid structure having one large opening and one small opening expose to its environment. The interior cavity defined by the toroid structure of the cyclodextrins can allow the cyclodextrins to form complexes with other molecules for use in host-guest chemistry.

Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that host-guest chemistry describes the complex or complexes that can be formed by two or more molecules, where the two or more molecules are held together by intermolecular forces other than covalent bonds. Pillarenes, calixarenes, and cyclodextrins can be functionalized onto graphene through non-covalent π-π stacking interactions or non-covalent —CH-π stacking interactions, owing to the electron-rich aromatic rings and one or more alkyloxy groups attached to the aromatic rings.

Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that hydrogen atoms within hydrocarbon groups (e.g., alkyl chains) can interact with the π electron system on the surface of graphene through electrostatic interactions. Hydrogen atoms have low electronegativity, and as such, they carry a partial positive charge. The partial positive charge on the hydrogen atoms of alkyl chains can participate in electrostatic interactions with the π electron system of the π band on the surface of graphene. The alkyl chains can adsorb onto the graphene surface in an all trans conformation along the carbon-carbon backbone, such that the carbon atoms fall into one plane that is either perpendicular or parallel to the graphene surface.

By way of example, the trans conformation of an alkyl chain having a perpendicular orientation of its carbon-carbon backbone along the surface of graphene creates a configuration where every second —CH₂— group of the alkyl chain has its hydrogen atoms pointing towards the graphene. As such, alkyl chains can orient themselves with respect to the graphene surface so that the —CH₂— hydrogens of alternate —CH₂— groups are disposed the same distance from the graphene surface and the hydrogen-graphene interactions are maximized. Thus, the alkyl chain can interact with the surface of graphene along the length of the alkyl chain. It is also believed that the hydrogen atoms of alkenyl chains and alkynyl chains, and derivatives thereof, can similarly interact with the graphene surface.

The non-covalent functionalization of graphene with a self-assembled monolayer of receptor molecules, including pillarenes, calixarenes, or peralkylated cyclodextrins substituted with, for example, hydrocarbon groups, does not significantly affect the atomic structure of graphene, and provides a stable graphene-based sensor with high sensitivity towards a number of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the parts-per-billion (ppb) or parts-per-million (ppm) levels. As such, the embodiments herein can be used to detect VOCs and/or differential binding patterns of the same that, in turn, can be used to identify disease states.

Referring now to FIG. 1, a schematic view of a graphene-based variable capacitor (or graphene varactor) 100 is shown in accordance with the embodiments herein. It will be appreciated that graphene varactors can be prepared in various ways with various geometries, and that the graphene varactor shown in FIG. 1 is just one example in accordance with the embodiments herein.

Graphene varactor 100 can include an insulator layer 102, a gate electrode 104 (or “gate contact”), a dielectric layer (not shown in FIG. 1), one or more graphene layers, such as graphene layers 108 a and 108 b, and a contact electrode 110 (or “graphene contact”). In some embodiments, the graphene layer(s) 108 a-b can be contiguous, while in other embodiments the graphene layer(s) 108 a-b can be non-contiguous. Gate electrode 104 can be deposited within one or more depressions formed in insulator layer 102. Insulator layer 102 can be formed from an insulative material such as silicon dioxide, formed on a silicon substrate (wafer), and the like. Gate electrode 104 can be formed by an electrically conductive material such as chromium, copper, gold, silver, nickel, tungsten, aluminum, titanium, palladium, platinum, iridium, and any combinations or alloys thereof, which can be deposited on top of or embedded within the insulator layer 102. The dielectric layer can be disposed on a surface of the insulator layer 102 and the gate electrode 104. The graphene layer(s) 108 a-b can be disposed on the dielectric layer. The dielectric layer will be discussed in more detail below in reference to FIG. 2.

Graphene varactor 100 includes eight gate electrode fingers 106 a-106 h. It will be appreciated that while graphene varactor 100 shows eight gate electrode fingers 106 a-106 h, any number of gate electrode finger configurations can be contemplated. In some embodiments, an individual graphene varactor can include fewer than eight gate electrode fingers. In some embodiments, an individual graphene varactor can include more than eight gate electrode fingers. In other embodiments, an individual graphene varactor can include two gate electrode fingers. In some embodiments, an individual graphene varactor can include 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more gate electrode fingers.

Graphene varactor 100 can include one or more contact electrodes 110 disposed on portions of the graphene layers 108 a and 108 b. Contact electrode 110 can be formed from an electrically conductive material such as chromium, copper, gold, silver, nickel, tungsten, aluminum, titanium, palladium, platinum, iridium, and any combinations or alloys thereof. Further aspects of exemplary graphene varactors can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 9,513,244, the content of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. The graphene varactors described herein can include those in which a single graphene layer has been surface-modified through non-covalent interactions between graphene and molecules substituted with hydrocarbon groups. In some embodiments, the surface of a single graphene layer can be surface-modified through non-covalent electrostatic interactions between graphene and any one of a number of pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, or derivatives thereof. In some embodiments, the surface of a single graphene layer can be surface-modified through non-covalent electrostatic interactions between graphene and any one of a number of calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, or derivatives thereof. In some embodiments, the surface of a single graphene layer can be surface-modified through non-covalent electrostatic interactions between graphene and any one of a number of peralkylated cyclodextrins or substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, or derivatives thereof. In other embodiments, the surface of a single graphene layer can be surface-modified through non-covalent π-π stacking interactions between graphene and any one of a number of pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives thereof. Details regarding the graphene varactors, pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes suitable for use herein will be discussed more fully below.

It will be appreciated that in various embodiments herein, graphene can be substituted with other similar single-layer structural materials, including for example, borophene or other structural analogues of graphene. Borophene is a single layer of boron atoms arranged in various crystalline configurations.

Referring now to FIG. 2, a schematic cross-sectional view of a portion of a graphene varactor 200 is shown in accordance with various embodiments herein. The graphene varactor 200 can include an insulator layer 102 and a gate electrode 104 recessed into the insulator layer 102. The gate electrode 104 can be formed by depositing an electrically conductive material in the depression in the insulator layer 102, as discussed above in reference to FIG. 1. A dielectric layer 202 can be formed on a surface of the insulator layer 102 and the gate electrode 104. In some examples, the dielectric layer 202 can be formed of a material, such as, silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, hafnium dioxide, zirconium dioxide, hafnium silicate, or zirconium silicate.

The graphene varactor 200 can include a single graphene layer 204 that can be disposed on a surface of the dielectric layer 202. The graphene layer 204 can be surface-modified with a self-assembled monolayer 206. The self-assembled monolayer 206 can be formed of a homogenous population of pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, or derivatives thereof disposed on an outer surface of the graphene layer 204 through non-covalent interactions. In some embodiments, the self-assembled monolayer 206 can be formed of a homogenous population of calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, or derivatives thereof. In other embodiments, the self-assembled monolayer 206 can be formed of a homogenous population of peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, or derivatives thereof. Exemplary pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives of any of the foregoing, are described more fully below. The self-assembled monolayer 206 can provide at least 90% surface coverage (by area) of the graphene layer 204. In some embodiments, the self-assembled monolayer 206 can provide at least 95% surface coverage of the graphene layer 204. In other embodiments, the self-assembled monolayer 206 can provide at least 98% surface coverage of the graphene layer 204.

In some embodiments, the self-assembled monolayer can provide at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91% 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% surface coverage (by area) of the graphene layer. It will be appreciated that the self-assembled monolayer can provide surface coverage falling within a range wherein any of the forgoing percentages can serve as the lower or upper bound of the range, provided that the lower bound of the range is a value less than the upper bound of the range.

In some embodiments, it will be appreciated that the self-assembly of pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives thereof, on the surface of the graphene layer can include the self-assembly into more than a monolayer, such as a multilayer. Multilayers can be detected and quantified by techniques such as scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and other scanning probe microscopies. References herein to a percentage of coverage greater than 100% shall refer to the circumstance where a portion of the surface area is covered by more than a monolayer, such as covered by two, three or potentially more layers of the compound used. Thus, a reference to 105% coverage herein shall indicate that approximately 5% of the surface area includes more than monolayer coverage over the graphene layer. In some embodiments, graphene surfaces can include 101%, 102%, 103%, 104%, 105%, 110%, 120%, 130%, 140%, 150%, or 175% surface coverage of the graphene layer. It will be appreciated that multilayer surface coverage of the graphene layer can fall within a range of surface coverages, wherein any of the forgoing percentages can serve as the lower or upper bound of the range, provided that the lower bound of the range is a value less than the upper bound of the range. For example, ranges of coverage can include, but are not limited to, 50% to 150% by surface area, 80% to 120% by surface area, 90% to 110%, or 99% to 120% by surface area.

In some embodiments, the self-assembled monolayers suitable for use herein can provide coverage of the graphene surface with a monolayer as quantified by the Langmuir theta value of at least some minimum threshold value, but avoid covering the majority of the surface of the graphene with a multilayer thicker than a monolayer. Details about the Langmuir theta values and determination of thereof for a particular self-assembled monolayer using Langmuir adsorption theory is described more fully below. In some embodiments, the self-assembled monolayers suitable for use herein provide a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.95. In some embodiments, the self-assembled monolayers suitable for use herein provide a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.98. In some embodiments, the self-assembled monolayers can provide a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.85, 0.86, 0.87, 0.88, 0.89, 0.90, 0.91, 0.92, 0.93, 0.94, 0.95, 0.96, 0.97, 0.98, 0.99, or 1.0. It will be appreciated that the self-assembled monolayer can provide a range of Langmuir theta values, wherein any of the forgoing Langmuir theta values can serve as the lower or upper bound of the range, provided that the lower bound of the range is a value less than the upper bound of the range.

Referring now to FIG. 3, a schematic top plan view of a chemical sensor element 300 is shown in accordance with various embodiments herein. The chemical sensor element 300 can include a substrate 302. It will be appreciated that the substrate can be formed from many different materials. By way of example, the substrate can be formed from silicon, glass, quartz, sapphire, polymers, metals, glasses, ceramics, cellulosic materials, composites, metal oxides, and the like. The thickness of the substrate can vary. In some embodiments, the substrate has sufficient structural integrity to be handled without undue flexure that could damage components thereon. In some embodiments, the substrate can have a thickness of about 0.05 mm to about 5 mm. The length and width of the substrate can also vary. In some embodiments, the length (or major axis) can be from about 0.2 cm to about 10 cm. In some embodiments, the length (or major axis) can be from about 20 μm to about 1 cm. In some embodiments, the width (perpendicular to the major axis) can be from about 0.2 cm to about 8 cm. In some embodiments, the width (perpendicular to the major axis) can be from about 20 μm to about 0.8 cm. In some embodiments, the graphene-based chemical sensor can be disposable.

A first measurement zone 304 can be disposed on the substrate 302. In some embodiments, the first measurement zone 304 can define a portion of a first gas flow path. The first measurement zone (or gas sample zone) 304 can include a plurality of discrete graphene-based variable capacitors (or graphene varactors) that can sense analytes in a gaseous sample, such as a breath sample. A second measurement zone (or environment sample zone) 306, separate from the first measurement zone 304, can also be disposed on the substrate 302. The second measurement zone 306 can also include a plurality of discrete graphene varactors. In some embodiments, the second measurement zone 306 can include the same (in type and/or number) discrete graphene varactors that are within the first measurement zone 304. In some embodiments, the second measurement zone 306 can include only a subset of the discrete graphene varactors that are within the first measurement zone 304. In operation, the data gathered from the first measurement zone, which can be reflective of the gaseous sample analyzed, can be corrected or normalized based on the data gathered from the second measurement zone, which can be reflective of analytes present in the environment.

In some embodiments, a third measurement zone (drift control or witness zone) 308 can also be disposed on the substrate. The third measurement zone 308 can include a plurality of discrete graphene varactors. In some embodiments, the third measurement zone 308 can include the same (in type and/or number) discrete graphene varactors that are within the first measurement zone 304. In some embodiments, the third measurement zone 308 can include only a subset of the discrete graphene varactors that are within the first measurement zone 304. In some embodiments, the third measurement zone 308 can include discrete graphene varactors that are different than those of the first measurement zone 304 and the second measurement zone 306. Aspects of the third measurement zone are described in greater detail below.

The first measurement zone, the second measurement zone, and the third measurement zone can be the same size or can be of different sizes. The chemical sensor element 300 can also include a component 310 to store reference data. The component 310 to store reference data can be an electronic data storage device, an optical data storage device, a printed data storage device (such as a printed code), or the like. The reference data can include, but is not limited to, data regarding the third measurement zone (described in greater detail below).

In some embodiments, chemical sensor elements embodied herein can include electrical contacts (not shown) that can be used to provide power to components on the chemical sensor element 300 and/or can be used to read data regarding the measurement zones and/or data from the stored in component 310. However, in other embodiments there are no external electrical contacts on the chemical sensor element 300.

It will be appreciated that many different circuit designs can be used to gather data and/or signals from chemical sensor elements herein including both direct-contact circuit designs as well as passive wireless sensing circuit designs. Some exemplary measurement circuits are described in U.S. Publ. Appl. No. 2019/0025237, the content of which is herein incorporated by reference.

It will be appreciated that the chemical sensor elements embodied herein can include those that are compatible with passive wireless sensing. A schematic diagram of a passive sensor circuit 502 and a portion of a reading circuit 522 is shown in FIG. 5 and discussed in more detail below. In the passive wireless sensing arrangement, the graphene varactor(s) can be integrated with an inductor such that one terminal of the graphene varactor contacts one end of the inductor, and a second terminal of the graphene varactor contacts a second terminal of the inductor. In some embodiments, the inductor can be located on the same substrate as the graphene varactor, while in other embodiments, the inductor could be located in an off-chip location.

Referring now to FIG. 4, a schematic diagram of a portion of a measurement zone 400 is shown in accordance with various embodiments herein. A plurality of discrete graphene varactors 402 can be disposed within the measurement zone 400 in an array. In some embodiments, a chemical sensor element can include a plurality of graphene varactors configured in an array within a measurement zone. In some embodiments, the plurality of graphene varactors can be identical, while in other embodiments the plurality of graphene varactors can be different from one another.

In some embodiments, the discrete graphene varactors can be heterogeneous in that they are all different from one another in terms of their binding behavior specificity with regard to a particular analyte. In some embodiments, some discrete graphene varactors can be duplicated for validation purposes, but are otherwise heterogeneous from other discrete graphene varactors. Yet in other embodiments, the discrete graphene varactors can be homogeneous. While the discrete graphene varactors 402 of FIG. 4 are shown as boxes organized into a grid, it will be appreciated that the discrete graphene varactors can take on many different shapes (including, but not limited to, various polygons, circles, ovals, irregular shapes, and the like) and, in turn, the groups of discrete graphene varactors can be arranged into many different patterns (including, but not limited to, star patterns, zig-zag patterns, radial patterns, symbolic patterns, and the like).

In some embodiments, the order of specific discrete graphene varactors 402 across the length 412 and width 414 of the measurement zone can be substantially random. In other embodiments, the order can be specific. For example, in some embodiments, a measurement zone can be ordered so that the specific discrete graphene varactors 402 for analytes having a lower molecular weight are located farther away from the incoming gas flow relative to specific discrete graphene varactors 402 for analytes having a higher molecular weight which are located closer to the incoming gas flow. As such, chromatographic effects which may serve to provide separation between chemical compounds of different molecular weight can be taken advantage of to provide for optimal binding of chemical compounds to corresponding discrete graphene varactors.

The number of discrete graphene varactors within a particular measurement zone can be from about 1 to about 100,000. In some embodiments, the number of discrete graphene varactors can be from about 1 to about 10,000. In some embodiments, the number of discrete graphene varactors can be from about 1 to about 1,000. In some embodiments, the number of discrete graphene varactors can be from about 2 to about 500. In some embodiments, the number of discrete graphene varactors can be from about 10 to about 500. In some embodiments, the number of discrete graphene varactors can be from about 50 to about 500. In some embodiments, the number of discrete graphene varactors can be from about 1 to about 250. In some embodiments, the number of discrete graphene varactors can be from about 1 to about 50.

Each of the discrete graphene varactors suitable for use herein can include at least a portion of one or more electrical circuits. By way of example, in some embodiments, each of the discrete graphene varactors can include one or more passive electrical circuits. In some embodiments, the graphene varactors can be included such that they are integrated directly on an electronic circuit. In some embodiments, the graphene varactors can be included such that they are wafer bonded to the circuit. In some embodiments, the graphene varactors can include integrated readout electronics, such as a readout integrated circuit (ROIC). The electrical properties of the electrical circuit, including resistance or capacitance, can change upon binding, such as specific and/or non-specific binding, with a component from a gas sample.

Referring now to FIG. 5, a schematic diagram of a passive sensor circuit 502 and a portion of a reading circuit 522 is shown in accordance with various aspects herein. In some embodiments, the passive sensor circuit 502 can include a metal-oxide-graphene varactor 504 (wherein RS represents the series resistance and CG represents the varactor capacitor) coupled to an inductor 510. Graphene varactors can be prepared in various ways and with various geometries. By way of example, in some aspects, a gate electrode can be recessed into an insulator layer as shown as gate electrode 104 in FIG. 1. A gate electrode can be formed by etching a depression into the insulator layer and then depositing an electrically conductive material in the depression to form the gate electrode. A dielectric layer can be formed on a surface of the insulator layer and the gate electrode. In some examples, the dielectric layer can be formed of a metal oxide such as, aluminum oxide, hafnium dioxide, zirconium dioxide, silicon dioxide, or of another material such as hafnium silicate or zirconium silicate. A surface-modified graphene layer can be disposed on the dielectric layer. Contact electrodes can also be disposed on a surface of the surface-modified graphene layer, also shown in FIG. 1 as contact electrode 110.

Further aspects of exemplary graphene varactor construction can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 9,513,244, the content of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

In various embodiments, the functionalized graphene layer (e.g., functionalized to include analyte binding receptors), which is part of the graphene varactor and thus part of a sensor circuit, such as a passive sensor circuit, is exposed to the gas sample flowing over the surface of the measurement zone. The passive sensor circuit 502 can also include an inductor 510. In some embodiments, only a single varactor is included with each passive sensor circuit 502. In other embodiments, multiple varactors are included, such as in parallel, with each passive sensor circuit 502.

In the passive sensor circuit 502, the capacitance of the electrical circuit changes upon binding of an analyte in the gas sample and the graphene varactor. The passive sensor circuit 502 can function as an LRC resonator circuit, wherein the resonant frequency of the LRC resonator circuit changes upon binding with a component from a gas sample.

The reading circuit 522 can be used to detect the electrical properties of the passive sensor circuit 502. By way of example, the reading circuit 522 can be used to detect the resonant frequency of the LRC resonator circuit and/or changes in the same. In some embodiments, the reading circuit 522 can include a reading coil having a resistance 524 and an inductance 526. When the sensor-side LRC circuit is at its resonant frequency, a plot of the phase of the impedance of the reading circuit versus the frequency has a minimum (or phase dip frequency). Sensing can occur when the varactor capacitance varies in response to binding of analytes, which changes the resonant frequency, and/or the value of the phase dip frequency.

Referring now to FIG. 6, a schematic view of a system 600 for sensing gaseous analytes in accordance with various embodiments herein is shown. The system 600 can include a housing 618. The system 600 can include a mouthpiece 602 into which a subject to be evaluated can blow a breath sample. The gaseous breath sample can pass through an inflow conduit 604 and pass through an evaluation sample (patient sample) input port 606. The system 600 can also include a control sample (environment) input port 608. The system 600 can also include a sensor element chamber 610, into which disposable sensor elements can be placed. The system 600 can also include a display screen 614 and a user input device 616, such as a keyboard. The system can also include a gas outflow port 612. The system 600 can also include flow sensors in fluid communication with the gas flow associated with one or more of the evaluation sample input port 606 and control sample input port 608. It will be appreciated that many different types of flow sensors can be used. In some embodiments, a hot-wire anemometer can be used to measure the flow of air. In some embodiments, the system can include a CO₂ sensor in fluid communication with the gas flow associated with one or more of the evaluation sample input port 606 and control sample input port 608.

In various embodiments, the system 600 can also include other functional components. By way of example, the system 600 can include a humidity control module 640 and/or a temperature control module 642. The humidity control module can be in fluid communication with the gas flow associated with one or more of the evaluation sample input port 606 and control sample input port 608 in order to adjust the humidity of one or both gas flow streams in order to make the relative humidity of the two streams substantially the same in order to prevent an adverse impact on the readings obtained by the system. The temperature control module can be in fluid communication with the gas flow associated with one or more of the evaluation sample input port 606 and control sample input port 608 in order to adjust the temperature of one or both gas flow streams in order to make the temperature of the two streams substantially the same in order to prevent an adverse impact on the readings obtained by the system. By way of example, the air flowing into the control sample input port can be brought up to 37 degrees Celsius or higher in order to match or exceed the temperature of air coming from a patient. The humidity control module and the temperature control module can be upstream from the input ports, within the input ports, or downstream from the input ports in the housing 618 of the system 600. In some embodiments, the humidity control module 640 and the temperature control module 642 can be integrated.

In some embodiments (not shown), the control sample input port 608 of system 600 can also be connected to a mouthpiece 602. In some embodiments, the mouthpiece 602 can include a switching airflow valve such that when the patient is drawing in breath, air flows from the control sample input port 608 to the mouthpiece, and the system is configured so that this causes ambient air to flow across the appropriate control measurement zone (such as the second measurement zone). Then when the patient exhales, the switching airflow valve can switch so that a breath sample from the patient flows from the mouthpiece 602 through the inflow conduit 604 and into the evaluation sample input port 606 and across the appropriate sample (patient sample) measurement zone (such as the first measurement zone) on the disposable sensor element.

In an embodiment, a method of making a chemical sensor element is included. The method can include depositing one or more measurement zones onto a substrate. The method can further include depositing a plurality of discrete graphene varactors within the measurement zones on the substrate. The method can include generating one or more discrete graphene varactors by modifying a surface of a graphene layer with pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives thereof to form a self-assembled monolayer on an outer surface of the graphene layer through non-covalent interactions. The method can include quantifying the extent of surface coverage of the self-assembled monolayer using contact angle goniometry, Raman spectroscopy, or X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The method can include selecting derivatized graphene layers that exhibit a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.9, as will be discussed more fully below. In some embodiments, the method can include selecting derivatized graphene layers that exhibit a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.98. The method can further include depositing a component to store reference data onto the substrate. In some embodiments, the measurement zones can all be placed on the same side of the substrate. In other embodiments, the measurement zones can be placed onto different sides of the substrate.

In an embodiment, a method of assaying one or more gas samples is included. The method can include inserting a chemical sensor element into a sensing machine. The chemical sensor element can include a substrate and a first measurement zone comprising a plurality of discrete graphene varactors. The first measurement zone can define a portion of a first gas flow path. The chemical sensor element can further include a second measurement zone separate from the first measurement zone. The second measurement zone can also include a plurality of discrete graphene varactors. The second measurement zone can be disposed outside of the first gas flow path.

The method can further include prompting a subject to blow air into the sensing machine to follow the first gas flow path. In some embodiments, the CO₂ content of the air from the subject is monitored and sampling with the disposable sensor element is conducted during the plateau of CO₂ content, as it is believed that the air originating from the alveoli of the patient has the richest content of chemical compounds for analysis, such as volatile organic compounds. In some embodiments, the method can include monitoring the total mass flow of the breath sample and the control (or environmental) air sample using flow sensors. The method can further include interrogating the discrete graphene varactors to determine their analyte binding status. The method can further include discarding the disposable sensor element upon completion of sampling.

Referring now to FIG. 7, a schematic view of a system 700 for sensing gaseous analytes in accordance with various embodiments herein is shown. In this embodiment, the system is in a hand-held format. The system 700 can include a housing 718. The system 700 can include a mouthpiece 702 into which a subject to be evaluated can blow a breath sample. The system 700 can also include a display screen 714 and a user input device 716, such as a keyboard. The system can also include a gas outflow port 712. The system can also include various other components such as those described with reference to FIG. 6 above.

In some embodiments, one of the measurement zones can be configured to indicate changes (or drift) in the chemical sensor element that could occur as a result of aging and exposure to varying conditions (such as heat exposure, light exposure, molecular oxygen exposure, humidity exposure, etc.) during storage and handling prior to use. In some embodiments, the third measurement zone can be configured for this purpose.

Referring now to FIG. 8, a schematic cross-sectional view is shown of a portion of a chemical sensor element 800 in accordance with various embodiments herein. The chemical sensor element 800 can include a substrate 802 and a discrete graphene varactor 804 disposed thereon that is part of a measurement zone. Optionally, in some embodiments the discrete graphene varactor 804 can be encapsulated by an inert material 806, such as nitrogen gas, or an inert liquid or solid. In this manner, the discrete graphene varactor 804 for the third measurement zone can be shielded from contact with gas samples and can therefore be used as a control or reference to specifically control for sensor drift which may occur between the time of manufacturing and the time of use of the disposable sensor element. In some embodiments, such as in the case of the use of an inert gas or liquid, the discrete binding detector can also include a barrier layer 808, which can be a layer of a polymeric material, a foil, or the like. In some cases, the barrier layer 808 can be removed just prior to use.

In an embodiment, a method for detecting one or more analytes is included. The method can include collecting a gaseous sample. In some embodiments, the gaseous sample is from a patient. In some embodiments the gaseous sample can include exhaled breath. In other embodiments, the gaseous sample can include breath removed from the lungs of a patient via a catheter or other similar extraction device. In some embodiments, the extraction device can include an endoscope, a bronchoscope, or tracheoscope. The method can also include contacting a graphene varactor with the gaseous sample, where the graphene varactor includes a graphene layer and a self-assembled monolayer disposed on an outer surface of the graphene layer through non-covalent interactions. In some embodiments, the self-assembled monolayer can provide a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.9. In some embodiments, the method can include selecting derivatized graphene layers that exhibit a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.98. Langmuir theta values will be discussed more fully below. In some embodiments, the method can include measuring a differential response in a capacitance of the graphene reactor due to the binding of one or more analytes present in the gaseous sample, which in turn can be used to identify disease states. In some embodiments, the method can include a self-assembled monolayer selected from at least one pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives thereof.

Graphene Varactors

The graphene varactors described herein can be used to sense one or more analytes in a gaseous sample, such as, for example, the breath of a patient. Graphene varactors embodied herein can exhibit a high sensitivity for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) found in gaseous samples at or near parts-per-million (ppm) or parts-per-billion (ppb) levels. The adsorption of VOCs onto the surface of graphene varactors can change the resistance, capacitance, or quantum capacitance of such devices, and can be used to detect the VOCs and/or patterns of binding by the same that, in turn, can be used to identify disease states such as cancer, cardiac diseases, infections, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and the like. The graphene varactors can be used to detect individual analytes in gas mixtures, as well as patterns of responses in highly complex mixtures. In some embodiments, one or more graphene varactors can be included to detect the same analyte in a gaseous sample. In some embodiments, one or more graphene varactors can be included to detect different analytes in a gaseous sample. In some embodiments, one or more graphene varactors can be included to detect a multitude of analytes in a gaseous sample.

An exemplary graphene varactor can include a graphene layer and a self-assembled monolayer disposed on an outer surface of the graphene layer, interacting with the latter through non-covalent interactions, as shown and discussed above in reference to FIG. 2. The self-assembled monolayers suitable for use herein can provide a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.9. Determination of the Langmuir theta value for a particular self-assembled monolayer using Langmuir adsorption theory is described more fully below. In some embodiments, the self-assembled monolayers suitable for use herein provide a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.95. In some embodiments, the self-assembled monolayers suitable for use herein provide a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.98.

The graphene varactors described herein can include those in which a single graphene layer has been surface-modified through non-covalent interactions with one or more receptor molecules including pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives thereof, as described elsewhere herein. Substituted pillarenes, substituted calixarenes, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, or substituted pyrenes can be substituted with any number of functional groups described herein, including, but not limited to alkyl groups, alkenyl groups, alkynyl groups, heteroalkyl groups, heteroalkenyl groups, heteroalkynyl groups, haloalkyl groups, haloalkenyl groups, haloalkynyl groups, halogenated heteroalkyl groups, halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, aryl groups, substituted aryl groups, heteroaryl groups, substituted heteroaryl groups, aryloxy groups, substituted aryloxy groups, arylthio, substituted arylthio groups, aryl amine groups, substituted aryl amine groups, halogenated aryl groups, substituted halogenated aryl groups, biphenyl groups, and/or substituted biphenyl groups.

As used herein, the term “alkyl” refers to any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 1 to 20 carbon atoms (i.e., C₁-C₂₀ alkyl). In some embodiments, the alkyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 6 to 18 carbon atoms (i.e., C₆-C₁₈ alkyl). In other embodiments, the alkyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 10 to 16 carbon atoms (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆ alkyl). The alkyl groups described herein have the general formula C_(n)H_(2n+1), unless otherwise indicated.

As used herein, the term “alkenyl” refers to any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 1 to 20 carbon atoms, wherein the alkenyl group contains at least one carbon-carbon double bond (i.e., C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl). In some embodiments, the alkenyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 6 to 18 carbon atoms, wherein the alkenyl group contains at least one carbon-carbon double bond (i.e., C₆-C₁₈ alkenyl). In other embodiments, the alkenyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 10 to 16 carbon atoms, wherein the alkenyl group contains at least one carbon-carbon double bond (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆ alkenyl). The alkenyl groups described herein have the general formula C_(n)H_((2n+1-2x)), where x is the number of double bonds present in the alkenyl group, unless otherwise indicated.

As used herein, the term “alkynyl” refers to any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 1 to 20 carbon atoms, including one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds (i.e., C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl). In some embodiments, the alkynyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 6 to 18 carbon atoms, including one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds (i.e., C₆-C₁₈ alkynyl). In other embodiments, the alkynyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 10 to 16 carbon atoms, including one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆ alkynyl).

As used herein, the term “heteroalkyl” refers to any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 1 to 20 carbon atoms, and one or more heteroatoms, including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof (i.e., C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl). In some embodiments, the heteroalkyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 6 to 18 carbon atoms and one or more heteroatoms, including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof (i.e., C₆-C₁₈ heteroalkyl). In other embodiments, the heteroalkyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 10 to 16 carbon atoms and one or more heteroatoms, including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆ heteroalkyl). In some embodiments, the heteroalkyl groups herein can have the general formula —RZ, —RZR, —ZRZR, or —RZRZR, where R can include, but not be limited to, any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, or a combination thereof, and Z can include one or more heteroatoms including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the heteroalkyl group can include, but not be limited to, alkoxy groups, alkyl amide groups, alkyl thioether groups, alkyl ester groups, alkyl sulfonate groups, alkyl phosphate groups, and the like. Examples of heteroalkyl groups suitable for use herein can include, but not be limited to, those selected from —ROH, —RC(O)OH, —RC(O)OR, —ROR, —RSR, —RCHO, —RX, —RC(O)NH₂, —RC(O)NR, —RNH₃ ⁺, —RNH₂, —RNO₂, —RNHR, —RNRR, —RB(OH)₂, —RSO₃ ⁻, —RPO₄ ²⁻, or any combination thereof, where R can include, but not be limited to, any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, provided that at least one heteroatom including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, is present in at least one R group, or a combination thereof, and X can be a halogen including F, Cl, Br, I, or At.

As used herein, the term “heteroalkenyl” refers to any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 1 to 20 carbon atoms, including one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, and one or more heteroatoms including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof (i.e., C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl). In some embodiments, the heteroalkenyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 6 to 18 carbon atoms, including one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, and one or more heteroatoms, including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof (i.e., C₆-C₁₈ heteroalkenyl). In other embodiments, the heteroalkenyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 10 to 16 carbon atoms, including one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, and one or more heteroatoms, including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆ heteroalkenyl). In some embodiments, the heteroalkenyl groups herein can have the general formula —RZ, —RZR, —ZRZR, or —RZRZR, where R can include, but not be limited to, any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl or C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, provided that at least one carbon-carbon double bond is present in at least one R group, or a combination thereof, and Z can include one or more heteroatoms including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the heteroalkenyl group can include, but not be limited to, alkenoxy groups, alkenyl amines, alkenyl thioester groups, alkenyl ester groups, alkenyl sulfonate groups, alkenyl phosphate groups, and the like. Examples of heteroalkenyl groups suitable for use herein can include, but not be limited to, those selected from —ROH, —RC(O)OH, —RC(O)OR, —ROR, —RSR, —RCHO, —RX, —RC(O)NH₂, —RC(O)NR, —RNH₃ ⁺, —RNH₂, —RNO₂, —RNHR, —RNRR, —RB(OH)₂, —RSO₃ ⁻, —RPO₄ ²⁻, or any combination thereof; where R can include, but not be limited to, any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, or C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, provided that at least one or more carbon-carbon double bonds and one or more heteroatoms including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof, are present in at least one R group; or a combination thereof, and X can be a halogen including F, Cl, Br, I, or At.

As used herein, the term “heteroalkynyl” refers to any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 1 to 20 carbon atoms, including one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds, and one or more heteroatoms including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof (i.e., C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl). In some embodiments, the heteroalkynyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 6 to 18 carbon atoms, including one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds, and one or more heteroatoms, including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof (i.e., C₆-C₁₈ heteroalkynyl). In other embodiments, the heteroalkynyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon functional group containing anywhere from 10 to 16 carbon atoms, including one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds, and one or more heteroatoms, including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆ heteroalkynyl). In some embodiments, the heteroalkynyl groups herein can have the general formula —RZ, —RZR, —ZRZR, or —RZRZR, where R can include, but not be limited to, any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, or C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, provided that at least one carbon-carbon triple bond is present in at least one R group or a combination thereof, and Z can include one or more heteroatoms including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the heteroalkynyl group can include, but not be limited to, alkynyloxy groups, alkynyl amines, alkynyl thioester groups, alkynyl ester groups, alkenyl sulfonate groups, alkenyl phosphate groups, and the like. Examples of heteroalkynyl groups suitable for use herein can include, but not be limited to, those selected from —ROH, —RC(O)OH, —RC(O)OR, —ROR, —RSR, —RCHO, —RX, —RC(O)NH₂, —RC(O)NR, —RNH₃*, —RNH₂, —RNO₂, —RNHR, —RNRR, —RB(OH)₂, —RSO₃—, —RPO₄ ²⁻, or any combination thereof; where R can include, but not be limited to, any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, or C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, provided that at least one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds and one or more heteroatoms including, but not limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B, or any combination thereof, are present in at least one R group; or a combination thereof, and X can be a halogen including F, Cl, Br, I, or At.

As used herein, the term “haloalkyl” refers to any linear, branched, or cyclic alkyl groups containing anywhere from 1 to 20 carbon atoms (i.e., C₁-C₂₀) having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, At (i.e., C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic alkyl group containing anywhere from 6 to 18 carbon atoms having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At (i.e., C₆-C₁₈ haloalkyl). In other embodiments, the haloalkyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic alkyl group containing anywhere from 10 to 16 carbon atoms having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆ haloalkyl). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl can include a monohaloalkyl containing only one halogen atom in place of a hydrogen atom. In other embodiments, the haloalkyl can include a polyhaloalkyl containing more than one halogen atom in place of a hydrogen atom, provided at least one hydrogen atom remains. In yet other embodiments, the haloalkyl can include a perhaloalkyl containing a halogen atom in place of every hydrogen atom of the corresponding alkyl.

As used herein, the term “haloalkenyl” refers to any linear, branched, or cyclic alkenyl group containing anywhere from 1 to 20 carbon atoms (i.e., C₁-C₂) having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At, and wherein the haloalkenyl group contains at least one carbon-carbon double bond (i.e., C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl). In some embodiments, the haloalkenyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic alkenyl group containing anywhere from 6 to 18 carbon atoms, having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At, and wherein the haloalkenyl group contains at least one carbon-carbon double bond (i.e., C₆-C₁₈ haloalkenyl). In other embodiments, the haloalkenyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic alkenyl group containing anywhere from 10 to 16 carbon atoms, having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At, and wherein the haloalkenyl group contains at least one carbon-carbon double bond (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆ haloalkenyl).

As used herein, the term “haloalkynyl” refers to any linear, branched, or cyclic alkynyl group containing anywhere from 1 to 20 carbon atoms (i.e., C₁-C₂) having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At, and wherein the haloalkynyl group contains at least one carbon-carbon triple bond (i.e., C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl). In some embodiments, the haloalkynyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic alkynyl group containing anywhere from 6 to 18 carbon atoms, having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At, and wherein the haloalkynyl group contains one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds (i.e., C₆-C₁₈ haloalkynyl). In other embodiments, the haloalkynyl groups herein can contain any linear, branched, or cyclic alkynyl group containing anywhere from 10 to 16 carbon atoms, having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At, and wherein the haloalkynyl group contains one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆ haloalkynyl).

As used herein, the term “halogenated heteroalkyl” refers to any heteroalkyl group as described herein, containing anywhere from 1 to 20 carbon atoms (i.e., C₁-C₂₀) and having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom, including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At (i.e., C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl). In some embodiments, the halogenated heteroalkyl groups herein can include any heteroalkyl group as described herein, containing anywhere from 6 to 18 carbon atoms (i.e., C₆-C₁₈) and having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom, including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At (i.e., C₆-C₁₈ halogenated heteroalkyl). In other embodiments, the halogenated heteroalkyl groups herein can include any heteroalkyl group as described herein, containing anywhere from 10 to 16 carbon atoms (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆) and having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom, including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆) halogenated heteroalkyl).

As used herein, the term “halogenated heteroalkenyl” refers to any heteroalkenyl group as described herein, containing anywhere from 1 to 20 carbon atoms (i.e., C₁-C₂₀) and having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom, including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At (i.e., C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl). In some embodiments, the halogenated heteroalkenyl groups herein can include any heteroalkenyl group as described herein, containing anywhere from 6 to 18 carbon atoms (i.e., C₆-C₁₈) and having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom, including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At (i.e., C₆-C₁₈ halogenated heteroalkenyl). In other embodiments, the halogenated heteroalkenyl groups herein can include any heteroalkenyl group as described herein, containing anywhere from 10 to 16 carbon atoms (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆) and having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom, including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At (i.e., C₁-C₁₆) halogenated heteroalkenyl).

As used herein, the term “halogenated heteroalkynyl” refers to any heteroalkynyl group as described herein, containing anywhere from 1 to 20 carbon atoms (i.e., C₁-C₂₀) and having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom, including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At (i.e., C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl). In some embodiments, the halogenated heteroalkynyl groups herein can include any heteroalkynyl group as described herein, containing anywhere from 6 to 18 carbon atoms (i.e., C₆-C₁₈) and having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom, including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At (i.e., C₆-C₁₈ halogenated heteroalkynyl). In other embodiments, the halogenated heteroalkynyl groups herein can include any heteroalkynyl group as described herein, containing anywhere from 10 to 16 carbon atoms (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆) and having one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by a halogen atom, including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At (i.e., C₁₀-C₁₆) halogenated heteroalkynyl).

As used herein, the term “aryl” refers to any aromatic hydrocarbon functional group containing a C₅- to C₈-membered aromatic ring, such as, for example, cyclopentadiene, benzene, and derivatives thereof. The corresponding aromatic radicals to the examples provided include, for example, cyclopentadienyl and phenyl radicals, and derivatives thereof. In some embodiments, the aryl functional groups herein can be further substituted to form substituted aryl functional groups. As used herein, the term “substituted aryl” refers to any aromatic hydrocarbon functional group containing a C₅- to C₈-membered aromatic ring, which itself can be substituted with one or more alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, or heteroalkynyl functional groups, or any combination thereof, as described herein.

In some embodiments, the aryl functional groups herein can include one or more heteroatoms to form heteroaryl functional groups. Suitable heteroatoms for use herein can include, but not be limited to, N, O, P, S, Si, Se, and B. As used herein, the term “heteroaryl” refers to any aryl functional group, as defined herein, where one or more carbon atoms of the C₅- to C₈-membered aromatic ring has been replaced with one or more heteroatoms or combinations of heteroatoms. Examples of heteroaryl functional groups can include, but not be limited to radicals of, pyrrole, thiophene, furan, imidazole, pyridine, and pyrimidine. The heteroaryl functional groups herein can be further substituted to form substituted heteroaryl functional groups. As used herein, the term “substituted heteroaryl” refers to any heteroaryl functional group, as described herein, which is further substituted with one or more alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, or heteroalkynyl functional groups, or any combination thereof, as described herein.

In some embodiments, the aryl functional groups herein can be substituted to form aryloxy functional groups. As used herein, the term “aryloxy” can include a functional group of the general formula Aryl-O—, where the aryl functional group can include a C₅- to C₈-membered aromatic ring. In some embodiments, the aryloxy group can include a phenoxy functional group of the formula C₆H₅O—. In some embodiments, the aryloxy functional group can be further substituted. As used herein, the term “substituted aryloxy” can include any aryloxy functional group, as defined herein, which is further substituted with one or more alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, or heteroalkynyl functional groups, or any combination thereof, as described herein.

In some embodiments, the aryl functional groups herein can be substituted to form arylthio functional groups. As used herein, the term “arylthio” can include a functional group of the general formula Aryl-S—, where the aryl functional group can include a C₅- to C₈-membered aromatic ring. In some embodiments, the arylthio functional group can include a phenylsulfanyl functional group of the formula C₆H₅S—. In some embodiments, the arylthio functional group can be further substituted. As used herein, the term “substituted arylthio” can include any arylthio functional group, as defined herein, which is further substituted with one or more alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, or heteroalkynyl functional groups, or any combination thereof, as described herein.

In some embodiments, the aryl functional groups herein can be substituted to form arylamine functional groups. As used herein, the term “arylamine” can include a functional group of the general formula Aryl-NH_(n), where the aryl functional group can include a C₅- to C₈-membered aromatic ring, and n can be from 0 to 3, providing that when n=0, 1, or 2, a non-H substitution is present on the N atom, which can include, but is not to be limited to, one or more alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, or heteroalkynyl functional groups, or any combination thereof, as described herein.

In some embodiments, the arylamine functional group can include a X-azanylbenzene functional group of the formula C₆H₅N. In some embodiments, the arylamine functional group can be further substituted. As used herein, the term “substituted arylamine” can include any arylamine functional group, as defined herein, which is further substituted with one or more alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, or heteroalkynyl functional groups, or any combination thereof, as described herein.

As used herein, the term “halogenated aryl” refers to an aryl group as described herein including any aromatic group containing a C₅- to C-membered aromatic ring, such as, for example, cyclopentadiene, benzene, and derivatives thereof, or the corresponding aromatic radicals to the examples provided including, for example, cyclopentadienyl and phenyl radicals, and derivatives thereof; where one or more hydrogen atoms of the aryl group or corresponding aromatic radical is replaced by a halogen atom, including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At. In some embodiments, the halogenated aryl group can include a chlorophenyl group. In other embodiments, the halogenated aryl group can include a perfluorphenyl group.

In some embodiments, the halogenated aryl functional groups herein can be further substituted to form substituted halogenated aryl functional groups. As used herein, the term “substituted halogenated aryl” refers to any halogenated aryl group as described herein, which itself can be substituted with one or more alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, haloalkyl, haloalkenyl, haloalkynyl, halogenated heteroalkyl, halogenated heteroalkenyl, halogenated heteroalkynyl, functional groups, or any combination thereof, as described herein.

As used herein, the term “biphenyl” refers to an aromatic hydrocarbon functional group with the molecular formula (C₆H₅)₂, and when bound to a porphyrin or metalloporphyrin has one less hydrogen at the site of covalent attachment to the porphyrin or metalloporphyrin ring structure. In some embodiments, the biphenyl functional group can be substituted to form a substituted biphenyl functional group. As used herein, the term “substituted biphenyl” refers to a biphenyl functional group, as described, which itself is substituted with one or more alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, or heteroalkynyl functional groups, or any combination thereof, as described herein.

Receptor Molecules for Functionalization of Graphene

The receptor molecules suitable for functionalization of graphene can include any of the pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, as described herein.

Pillarenes

Pillarenes suitable for use herein include those that are substituted or unsubstituted. Pillarenes are a group of heterocyclic macrocycles having 5 to 15 modified hydroquinone subunits, each connected by a methylene (—CH₂—) bridge. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that the hydroquinone subunits of the pillarenes create a symmetrical pillar-like structure defining a central cavity. Because the central cavity can capture analytes of interest for chemical sensing, the pillarenes are an emerging class of macrocycles used in host-guest chemistry. The pillarenes can include those that are substituted at various positions about the benzene ring, including those that are 1,4-disubstituted, 1,2-disubstituted, or 1,5-disubstituted. The basic core structure of a pillarene is as follows:

where n is an integer from at least 5 to 15 and where each R⁰ can independently include —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹. Each R¹ can independently include: —H; —OH; ═O; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl, or any combinations thereof; an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X where X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof. Each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, each R¹ can independently include any substitutions, any derivatives, or any combinations of any of the forgoing. In various embodiments where an acidic functional group is listed, such as for example —R²C(O)OH, —R²OPO(OH)₂, and —R²OSO(OH)₂, it is to be understood that the corresponding sodium salts, potassium salts, and the like are also contemplated herein. In embodiments where R⁰ is —R¹, R¹ can independently include —X such that X is any halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At. In some embodiments, at least some of the R⁰ substituents differ from the other R⁰ substituents. In other embodiments, the R⁰ substituents can all be the same.

In some embodiments, the pillarenes suitable for use herein can include those of the general formula:

where each R⁰ can independently include —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹, and where x is an integer from at least 0 to 15, y is an integer from at least 0 to 15, and n is an integer from at least 5 to 15. Each R¹ can independently include —H; —OH; ═O; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof; an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X wherein X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof. Each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, each R¹ can independently include any substitutions, any derivatives, or any combinations of any of the forgoing. In various embodiments where an acidic functional group is listed, such as for example —R²C(O)OH, —R²OPO(OH)₂, and —R²OSO(OH)₂, it is to be understood that the corresponding sodium salts, potassium salts, and the like are also contemplated herein. In embodiments where R⁰ is —R¹, R¹ can independently include —X such that X is any halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At. In some embodiments, at least some of the R⁰ substituents differ from the other R⁰ substituents. In other embodiments, the R⁰ substituents can all be the same.

In various embodiments, pillarenes suitable for use herein can include those such as dimethoxypillar[5]arene or dimethoxypillar[4]arene[1]quinone. In some embodiments, the pillarene suitable for use herein includes dimethoxypillar[5]arene of the chemical structure:

In other embodiments, the pillarene suitable for use herein includes dimethoxypillar[4]arene[1]quinone of the chemical structure:

Calixarenes

Calixarenes are a group of heterocyclic macrocycles having from 3 to 15 aromatic components derived from compounds such as phenol, where each component is connected by a substituted or unsubstituted methylene (—CH₂—) bridge. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that the subunits of the calixarenes can create a cup-like shape defining a central cavity. Because the central cavity can capture analytes of interest for chemical sensing, the calixarenes are an emerging class of macrocycles used in host-guest chemistry. Calixarenes suitable for use herein include those that are substituted or unsubstituted. Some exemplary structures of a calixarenes include:

where n is an integer from at least 3 to 15 and each R⁰ can independently include —R¹, —OR, or —SR¹. Each R¹ can independently include —H; —OH; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof, an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X wherein X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof. Each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, each R¹ can independently include any substitutions, any derivatives, or any combinations of any of the forgoing. In various embodiments where an acidic functional group is listed, such as for example —R²C(O)OH, —R²OPO(OH)₂, and —R²OSO(OH)₂, it is to be understood that the corresponding sodium salts, potassium salts, and the like are also contemplated herein. In embodiments where R⁰ is —R¹, R¹ can independently include —X such that X is any halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At. In some embodiments, at least some of the R⁰ substituents differ from the other R⁰ substituents. In other embodiments, the R⁰ substituents can all be the same.

Peralkylated Cyclodextrins

Various peralkylated cyclodextrins can be suitable for use in modifying modify a surface of graphene as described herein. Peralkylated cyclodextrins suitable for use herein include those that are substituted or unsubstituted. In some embodiments, the peralkylated cyclodextrins can include, but are not limited to α-, β- and γ-cyclodextrins and derivatives thereof. In some embodiments, the peralkylated cyclodextrins and their derivatives can include, but not be limited to those having the formula:

where n can be any integer from 5 to 10, or any integer from 6 to 8, and where Z can be —S or —O. Each R¹ can independently include: —H; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combination thereof; an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, or arylamine; —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X where X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof. Each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, each R¹ can independently include any substitutions, any derivatives, or any combinations of any of the forgoing. In some embodiments, each R¹ can independently include any substitutions, any derivatives, or any combinations of any of the forgoing.

In various embodiments where an acidic functional group is listed, such as for example —R²C(O)OH, —R²OPO(OH)₂, and —R²OSO(OH)₂, it is to be understood that the corresponding sodium salts, potassium salts, and the like are also contemplated herein. In some embodiments, the presence of one or more hydroxyl groups or amino groups can contribute to hydrogen bonding between the cyclodextrin molecules and the graphene layer. In various embodiments where ZR¹ can be replaced with —X such that X is any halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At.

In some embodiments, the peralkylated cyclodextrin suitable for use herein includes can include heptakis (2,3,6-tri-O-methyl)-β-cyclodextrin (herein “β-CDMe₂₁”) having the chemical structure:

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Various polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds can be suitable for use in modifying modify a surface of graphene as described herein. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds suitable for use herein include those that are substituted or unsubstituted. As described herein, a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon can be described by the formula:

where n is an integer from at least 3 to 20 and each X can be any substitution, independently including, but not limited to, —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹. Each R¹ can independently include: —H, —OH, —C(O)OH, —C(O)OR², —OR², —SR², —CHO, —X where X is a halogen atom, —C(O)NH₂, —C(O)NR², —NH₃ ⁺, —NH₂, —NO₂, —NHR², —NR²R², —N₃, —B(OH)₂, —OPO(OH)₂, —OSO(OH)₂, any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl, or any combinations thereof; an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X where X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²B(OH)₂, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof. Each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, each R¹ can independently include any substitutions, any derivatives, or any combinations of any of the forgoing. In various embodiments where an acidic functional group is listed, such as for example —R²B(OH)₂, —R²C(O)OH, —R²OPO(OH)₂, and —R²OSO(OH)₂, it is to be understood that the corresponding sodium salts, potassium salts, and the like are also contemplated herein. In embodiments where X is —R¹, R¹ can independently include —X such that X is any halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At.

In some embodiments, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon can include pyrenes, substituted pyrenes, and pyrene derivatives described by the formula:

where X can be any substitution, including, but not limited to, R¹, —OR¹, or SR¹. Each R¹ can independently include: —H, —OH, —C(O)OH, —C(O)OR², —OR², —SR², —CHO, —X where X is a halogen atom, —C(O)NH₂, —C(O)NR², —NH₃ ⁺, —NH₂, —NO₂, —NHR², —NR²R², —N₃, —B(OH)₂, —OPO(OH)₂, —OSO(OH)₂, any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl, or any combinations thereof; an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X where X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²B(OH)₂, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof. Each R² can independently include any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, each R¹ can independently include any substitutions, any derivatives, or any combinations of any of the forgoing. In various embodiments where an acidic functional group is listed, such as for example —R²B(OH)₂, —R²C(O)OH, —R²OPO(OH)₂, and —R²OSO(OH)₂, it is to be understood that the corresponding sodium salts, potassium salts, and the like are also contemplated herein. In embodiments where X is —R¹, R¹ can independently include —X such that X is any halogen atom including at least one of F, Cl, Br, I, or At.

In some embodiments, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon can include those having the formula pyrenyl-(CH₂)_(n)—SO₃X, where n is a number between 0 and 10 and X is H or a metal cation including, but not to be limited to, Na, K, Li, Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, or Sr. As used herein, the term “pyrenyl” refers to a pyrene group.

In some embodiments, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon can include 1-pyrene sulfonic acid described by the formula:

Langmuir Adsorption Theory

Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that according to Langmuir adsorption theory, monolayer modification of graphene can be controlled by varying the concentration of the adsorbate in the bulk of the self-assembly solution according to:

$\begin{matrix} {\theta = \frac{K*C}{1 + {K*C}}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

where θ is the fractional surface coverage, C is the concentration of the adsorbate in the bulk of the self-assembly solution, and K is the equilibrium constant for adsorption of the adsorbate to graphene. Experimentally, the surface coverage can be expressed by the change in contact angle between bare graphene and modified graphene according to:

$\begin{matrix} {\theta = \frac{{\Phi (i)} - {\Phi ({bare})}}{{\Phi \left( {sa{t.}} \right)} - {\Phi ({bare})}}} & (2) \end{matrix}$

where Φ(i) is the contact angle of the modified graphene as a function of the concentration in the self-assembly solution, Φ(bare) is the contact angle of bare graphene, and Φ(sat.) is the contact angle of graphene modified with a complete monolayer of receptor molecules (i.e., 100% surface coverage or θ=1.0), where the receptor molecules can include one or more of a pillarene, substituted pillarene, calixarene, substituted calixarene, peralkylated cyclodextrin, or substituted peralkylated cyclodextrin and their derivatives. Insertion of θ from eq. (2) into eq. (1) and solving for Φ(i) gives eq. (3)

$\begin{matrix} {{\Phi (i)} = {{\Phi \left( {bare} \right)} + \frac{K*{C\left\lbrack {{\Phi \left( {sa{t.}} \right)} - {\Phi \left( {bare} \right)}} \right\rbrack}}{1 + {K*C}}}} & (3) \end{matrix}$

Thus, the experimentally observed Φ(i) values can be fitted as a function of receptor concentration in the self-assembly solution, using the two fitting parameters K and Φ(sat.). Once these two parameters have been determined, relative surface coverages at different self-assembly concentrations can be predicted from eq. (1), using K.

Data can be fitted with the Langmuir adsorption model to determine the equilibrium constants for surface adsorption and the concentrations of self-assembly solutions needed to form dense monolayers having 90% or greater surface coverage (i.e., θ>0.9) on graphene. In some embodiments, a surface coverage of at least 90% or greater is desired. In some embodiments, a surface coverage of at least 95% or greater is desired. In some embodiments, a surface coverage of at least 98% or greater is desired.

A representative Langmuir adsorption isotherm for the adsorption of a substituted pillararene to graphene is shown in FIG. 9 and described more fully in Examples 1-3 below. The data show the relative monolayer coverage (dots) along with a fit based on Langmuir adsorption theory (solid line) for the adsorption of dimethoxypillar[5]arene (herein “DMpillar[5]arene”) to graphene, as determined by XPS measurements. The relative surface coverage for the adsorption of DMpillar[5]arene to graphene as a function of the logarithm of the DMpillar[5]arene concentration in the self-assembly solution is shown in FIG. 10.

In the above example, the Langmuir model is used to determine K from the elemental compositions of the bare graphene and modified graphene surfaces obtained using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Instead of using XPS data, data obtained with infrared spectroscopy or Raman spectroscopy, or contact angle goniometry can also be used.

X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a highly sensitive spectroscopic technique that can quantitatively measure the elemental composition of a surface of a material. The process of XPS involves irradiation of a surface with X-rays under a vacuum, while measuring the kinetic energy and electron release within the top 0 to 10 nm of a material. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that XPS can be used to confirm the presence of a self-assembled monolayer formed on the surface of graphene.

The surface concentrations of the types of atoms that the monolayer, graphene, and the underlying substrate consist of (as determined from XPS) depends on the Langmuir theta value of the monolayer or, in other words, the surface density of the monolayer molecules on the graphene. For example, the surface concentrations of carbon, oxygen, and copper (i.e., C %, O %, and Cu %, as determined from XPS) for the monolayers of any given cyclodextrin on a copper substrate depends on the concentration of that cyclodextrin in the self-assembly solution. Due to experimental error, a slightly different value of the equilibrium constant, K, for surface adsorption will result when either the C %, O %, or Cu % data are fitted separately. However, because the C %, O %, or Cu % data characterize the same equilibrium, there is only one true value for K. Therefore, the XPS data can not only be fitted separately for the C %, O %, and Cu % data but also as one combined set of data. Fitting of the combined data for several types of atoms that the monolayer, graphene, and the underlying substrate consist of gives more accurate estimates of the true value of K. For this purpose, the following equation can be used, where each data point consists of a vector comprising (i) an index, (ii) the concentration of the self-assembly solution, and (iii) the carbon, oxygen, or copper concentration as determined by XPS.

${{{KroneckerDelta}\left\lbrack {1 - {index}} \right\rbrack}*\left\{ {{C\mspace{14mu} \% \left( {{bar}e} \right)} + \frac{K*Conc*\left\lbrack {{C\mspace{14mu} \% \left( {{sa}{t.}} \right)} - {C\mspace{14mu} \% ({bare})}} \right\rbrack}{1 + {K*Conc}}} \right\}} + {{{KroneckerDelta}\left\lbrack {2 - {index}} \right\rbrack}*\left\{ {{O\mspace{14mu} \% \left( {{bar}e} \right)} + \frac{K*Conc*\left\lbrack {{O\mspace{14mu} \% \left( {sa{t.}} \right)} - {O\mspace{14mu} \% ({bare})}} \right\rbrack}{1 + {K*Conc}}} \right\}} + {{{KroneckerDelta}\left\lbrack {3 - {index}} \right\rbrack}*\left\{ {{{Cu}\mspace{14mu} \% \left( {{bar}e} \right)} + \frac{K*Conc*\left\lbrack {{{Cu}\mspace{14mu} \% \left( {sat} \right)} - {{Cu}\mspace{14mu} \% ({bare})}} \right\rbrack}{1 + {K*Conc}}} \right\}}$

The index 1 was used for the C % data, 2 for the O % data, and 3 for the Cu % data. The output of the Kronecker delta for the input of 0 is 1, and it is 0 for any other input. This fitting procedure provides in one step the maximum surface concentrations of carbon, oxygen, and copper (i.e., C % (sat.), O % (sat.), and Cu % (sat.), respectively) along with one single value for K for all three adsorption isotherms.

In the example above, the K value is fitted from 3 adsorption isotherms, that is, the surface concentrations of 3 types of atoms. The same type of fit may also be performed for adsorption isotherms of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more different types of atoms.

The equilibrium constant K, as determined by the fit of the XPS data, can be used in the Langmuir adsorption model to determine the θ value for graphene surfaces modified with various molecules forming monolayers on graphene, such as pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, and their derivatives. A representative Langmuir adsorption isotherm for the adsorption of graphene modified with dimethoxypillar[5]arene is shown in FIG. 9 and described in more detail in Examples 1-3.

Contact Angle Goniometry

Contact angle goniometry can be used to determine the wettability of a solid surface by a liquid. Wettability, or wetting, can result from the intermolecular forces at the contact area between a liquid and a solid surface. The degree of wetting can be described by the value of the contact angle θ formed between the area of contact between the liquid and the solid surface and a line tangent to the liquid-vapor interface. When a surface of a solid is hydrophilic and water is used as the test liquid, (i.e., a high degree of wettability), the value for Φ can fall within a range of 0 to 90 degrees. When a surface of a solid is moderately hydrophilic to hydrophobic, (i.e., a medium degree of wettability), the value for Φ for water as the test liquid can fall within a range of 85 to 105 degrees. When the surface of a solid is highly hydrophobic, (i.e., a low degree of wettability), the value for Φ with water as the test liquid can fall within a range of 90 to 180 degrees. Thus, a change in contact angle can be reflective of a change in the surface chemistry of a substrate.

Graphene surfaces and modifications made to graphene surfaces can be characterized using contact angle goniometry. Contact angle goniometry can provide quantitative information regarding the degree of modification of the graphene surface. Contact angle measurements are highly sensitive to the functional groups present on sample surfaces and can be used to determine the formation and extent of surface coverage of self-assembled monolayers. A change in the contact angle from a bare graphene surface as compared to one that has been immersed into a self-assembly solution containing π-electron-rich molecules, can be used to confirm the formation of the self-assembled monolayer on the surface of the graphene.

The types of solvents suitable for use in determining contact angle measurements, also called wetting solutions, are those that maximize the difference between the contact angle of the solution on bare graphene and the contact angle on the modified graphene, thereby improving data accuracy for measurements of binding isotherms. In some embodiments, the wetting solutions can include, but are not limited to, deionized (DI) water, NaOH aqueous solution, borate buffer (pH 9.0), other pH buffers, CF₃CH₂OH, and the like. In some embodiments, the wetting solutions are polar. In some embodiments, the wetting solutions are non-polar.

Methods

The pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes herein can be used in one or more methods for modifying a surface of graphene. In one embodiment, a method can include forming a self-assembled monolayer disposed on an outer surface of a graphene layer through non-covalent interactions between the self-assembled monolayer and a π-electron system of graphene. The method can include a self-assembled monolayer including one or more pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, or substituted calixarenes, or derivatives thereof, as described elsewhere herein. The method can include quantifying the extent of surface coverage of the self-assembled monolayer using contact angle goniometry, Raman spectroscopy, or X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy. In some embodiments, that non-covalent interactions can include electrostatic interactions. In other embodiments, the non-covalent interactions can include π-π stacking interactions.

In some embodiments, the method can include selecting derivatized graphene layers that exhibit a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.9. In other embodiments, the method includes selecting derivatized graphene layers that exhibit a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.98.

The pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes herein can be used in one or more methods for modifying a surface of graphene. In one embodiment, a method can include detecting an analyte. The method can include collecting a gaseous sample and contacting the gaseous sample with one or more graphene varactors. The one or more graphene varactors can include a graphene layer, and a self-assembled monolayer disposed on an outer surface of the graphene layer through non-covalent interactions between the self-assembled monolayer and a π-electron system of graphene. The self-assembled monolayer can include at least one selected from the group including of pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives thereof, as described elsewhere herein. The method can further include measuring a differential response in an electrical property of the one or more graphene varactors due to the binding of one or more analytes present in the gaseous sample, where the electrical property can be selected from the group including of capacitance or resistance

Aspects may be better understood with reference to the following examples. These examples are intended to be representative of specific embodiments, but are not intended as limiting the overall scope of embodiments herein.

EXAMPLES Example 1: Experimental Materials

Dimethoxypillar[5]arene (herein “DMpillar[5]arene”) was purchased from Tokyo Chemical Industry (Cambridge, Mass.). Monolayer graphene on Cu foil was purchased from Graphenea (Donostia, Spain). Heptakis(2,3,6-tri-O-methyl)-β-cyclodextrin (herein “β-CDMe₂”), hexane and acetonitrile was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, Mo.). The chemical structure of DMpillar[5]arene is as follows:

The chemical structure of β-CDMe₂₁ is as follows:

Example 2: Graphene Surface Modification Through Self-Assembly of DMPillar[5]Arene

Acetonitrile was used as the self-assembly solvent. Graphene substrates were immersed overnight into DMpillar[5]arene solutions at various concentrations, including 0 millimolar (mM), 0.0030 mM, 0.010 mM, 0.030 mM, 0.10 mM, or 0.30 mM. The DMpillar[5]arene-modified graphene substrates were then washed 3 times with small portions of the acetonitrile solvent to remove excess self-assembly solution.

Example 3: Surface Characterization of Graphene Modified with DMPillar[5]Arene

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra of bare graphene and graphene modified with DMpillar[5]arene were collected on a VersaProbe III Scanning XPS Microprobe (PHI 5000, 5 Physical Electronics, Chanhassen, Minn.). The results for the elemental surface composition of graphene modified with DMpillar[5]arene are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Elemental surface composition of graphene modified with DMpillar[5]arene, as determined by XPS. DMpillar[5]arene Concentration (mM) in self-assembly solution C % Cu % O % 0 54.2 ± 0.4 6.7 ± 0.9 39.1 ± 0.8 0.0030 57.7 ± 1.8 7.0 ± 1.0 35.3 ± 2.0 0.010 56.3 ± 1.7 8.1 ± 0.5 35.6 ± 1.5 0.030 60.4 ± 1.8 8.1 ± 0.9 31.5 ± 1.4 0.10 65.8 ± 0.6 15.0 ± 0.6  19.3 ± 0.1 0.30 67.3 ± 2.6 15.7 ± 1.3  17.0 ± 1.3

The C %, O % and Cu % data were fitted simultaneously, as described above, to determine the equilibrium constant K. The equilibrium constant, K, and concentration of self-assembly solution needed for at least 90% monolayer formation with DMpillar[5]arene are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Equilibrium constant and monolayer concentration for adsorption of DMpillar[5]arene to graphene. Concentration of self-assembly solution needed Self-Assembly Log K Self-assembly for 90% surface Molecule (Log M⁻¹) solvent coverage (mM) DMpillar[5]arene 4.29 (4.14-4.40) acetonitrile 0.47

The Langmuir adsorption isotherm for the adsorption of graphene modified with DMpillar[5]arene is shown in FIG. 9. The figure shows the relative monolayer coverage (dots) along with a fit (solid line) based on Langmuir adsorption theory for the adsorption of graphene modified with DMpillar[5]arene, as determined by XPS data. The relative surface coverage for the adsorption of DMpillar[5]arene to graphene as a function of the logarithm of the DMpillar[5]arene concentration in the self-assembly solution is shown in FIG. 10.

Example 4: Graphene Surface Modification Through Self-Assembly of β-CDMe₂₁

Hexane was used as the self-assembly solvent. Graphene substrates were immersed overnight into β-CDMe₂₁ solutions at various concentrations, including 0 millimolar (mM), 0.0050 mM, 0.010 mM, 0.050 mM, 0.10 mM, or 0.50 mM. The β-CDMe₂₁-modified graphene substrates were then washed 3 times with small portions of the hexane solvent to remove excess self-assembly solution.

Example 5: Surface Characterization of Graphene Modified with β-CDMe₂₁

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra of bare graphene and graphene modified with β-CDMe₂₁ were collected on a VersaProbe III Scanning XPS Microprobe (PHI 5000, 5 Physical Electronics, Chanhassen, Minn.). The results for the elemental surface composition of graphene modified with β-CDMe₂₁ are shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3 Elemental surface composition of graphene modified with β-CDMe₂₁, as determined by XPS. β-CDMe₂₁ Concentration (mM) in self-assembly solution C % Cu % O % 0 53.9 ± 0.5 15.5 ± 0.8 30.5 ± 0.8 0.0050 59.2 ± 1.7 14.8 ± 1.7 25.9 ± 1.1 0.010 60.3 ± 2.8 15.6 ± 2.0 24.1 ± 1.9 0.050 63.5 ± 1.0 16.0 ± 0.9 20.4 ± 1.4 0.10 63.2 ± 1.7 14.4 ± 1.9 22.5 ± 0.7 0.50 65.0 ± 1.1 14.5 ± 2.8 20.5 ± 2.8

The C %, O % and Cu % data were fitted simultaneously, as described above, to determine the equilibrium constant K. The equilibrium constant, K, and concentration of self-assembly solution needed for at least 90% monolayer formation with —CDMe₂₁ are shown in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Equilibrium constant and monolayer concentration for adsorption of β-CDMe₂₁ to graphene. Concentration of self-assembly solution needed for Self-Assembly Log K Self-assembly 90% surface Molecule (Log M⁻¹) solvent coverage (mM) β-CDMe₂₁ 5.24 (5.15-5.31) hexane 0.052

The Langmuir adsorption isotherm for the adsorption of graphene modified with β-CDMe₂₁ is shown in FIG. 11. The figure shows the relative monolayer coverage (dots) along with a fit (solid line) based on Langmuir adsorption theory for the adsorption of graphene modified with β-CDMe₂₁, as determined by XPS data. The relative surface coverage for the adsorption of β-CDMe₂₁ to graphene as a function of the logarithm of the β-CDMe₂₁ concentration in the self-assembly solution is shown in FIG. 12.

It should be noted that, as used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. It should also be noted that the term “or” is generally employed in its sense including “and/or” unless the content clearly dictates otherwise.

It should also be noted that, as used in this specification and the appended claims, the phrase “configured” describes a system, apparatus, or other structure that is constructed or configured to perform a particular task or adopt a particular configuration. The phrase “configured” can be used interchangeably with other similar phrases such as arranged and configured, constructed and arranged, constructed, manufactured and arranged, and the like.

All publications and patent applications in this specification are indicative of the level of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains. All publications and patent applications are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated by reference.

As used herein, the recitation of numerical ranges by endpoints shall include all numbers subsumed within that range (e.g., 2 to 8 includes 2.1, 2.8, 5.3, 7, etc.).

The headings used herein are provided for consistency with suggestions under 37 CFR 1.77 or otherwise to provide organizational cues. These headings shall not be viewed to limit or characterize the invention(s) set out in any claims that may issue from this disclosure. As an example, although the headings refer to a “Field,” such claims should not be limited by the language chosen under this heading to describe the so-called technical field. Further, a description of a technology in the “Background” is not an admission that technology is prior art to any invention(s) in this disclosure. Neither is the “Summary” to be considered as a characterization of the invention(s) set forth in issued claims.

The embodiments described herein are not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise forms disclosed in the following detailed description. Rather, the embodiments are chosen and described so that others skilled in the art can appreciate and understand the principles and practices. As such, aspects have been described with reference to various specific and preferred embodiments and techniques. However, it should be understood that many variations and modifications may be made while remaining within the spirit and scope herein. 

1. A medical device comprising: a graphene varactor comprising: a graphene layer; a self-assembled monolayer disposed on an outer surface of the graphene layer through non-covalent interactions between the self-assembled monolayer and a π-electron system of graphene; and wherein the self-assembled monolayer comprises one or more pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives thereof.
 2. The medical device of claim 2, wherein the self-assembled monolayer provides a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.9.
 3. The medical device of claim 2, wherein the self-assembled monolayer provides a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.98.
 4. The medical device of claim 2, wherein the self-assembled monolayer provides coverage over the graphene from 50% to 150% by surface area.
 5. The medical device of claim 2, comprising a plurality of graphene varactors configured in an array on the medical device.
 6. The medical device of claim 2, the self-assembled monolayer comprising substituted pillarenes comprising:

wherein each R⁰ can independently comprise: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and wherein each R¹ can independently comprise: —H; —OH; ═O; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof; an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof; —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X wherein X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof, wherein each R² can independently comprise any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and wherein n is an integer from at least 5 to
 15. 7. The medical device of claim 21, wherein at least some of the R⁰ substituents differ from the other R⁰ substituents.
 8. The medical device of claim 2, the self-assembled monolayer comprising substituted pillarenes comprising:

wherein each R⁰ can independently comprise: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and wherein each R¹ can independently comprise: —H; —OH; ═O; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof; an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof; —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X wherein X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof, wherein each R² can independently comprise any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and wherein x is an integer from at least 0 to 15, y is an integer from at least 0 to 15, and n is an integer from at least 5 to
 15. 9. The medical device of claim 2, the self-assembled monolayer comprising substituted calixarenes comprising any of:

wherein each R⁰ can independently comprise: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and wherein each R¹ can independently comprise: —H; —OH; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof; an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof; —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X wherein X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof; wherein each R² can independently comprise any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and wherein n is an integer from at least 3 to
 15. 10. The medical device of claim 2, the self-assembled monolayer comprising substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins comprising:

wherein each Z can independently comprise: —S or —O; and wherein each R¹ can independently comprise: —H; —OH; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof; an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X wherein X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof, wherein each R² can independently comprise any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and n is an integer from at least 5 to
 10. 11. A method of modifying a surface of graphene, the method comprising: forming a self-assembled monolayer disposed on an outer surface of a graphene layer through non-covalent interactions between the self-assembled monolayer and a π-electron system of graphene; the self-assembled monolayer comprising one or more pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives thereof; and quantifying an extent of surface coverage of the self-assembled monolayer using contact angle goniometry, Raman spectroscopy, or X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy.
 12. The method of claim 11, further comprising selecting derivatized graphene layers that exhibit a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.9.
 13. The method of claim 11, further comprising selecting derivatized graphene layers that exhibit a Langmuir theta value of at least 0.98.
 14. The method of claim 11, wherein the self-assembled monolayer comprising substituted pillarenes comprising:

wherein each R⁰ can independently comprise: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and wherein each R¹ can independently comprise: —H; —OH; ═O; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof; an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X wherein X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof; wherein each R² can independently comprise any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and wherein n is an integer from at least 5 to
 15. 15. The method of claim 11, wherein the self-assembled monolayer comprises substituted pillarenes comprising:

wherein each R⁰ can independently comprise: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and wherein each R¹ can independently comprise: —H; —OH; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof; an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X wherein X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NHR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof, wherein each R² can independently comprise any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and wherein x is an integer from at least 0 to 15, y is an integer from at least 0 to 15, and n is an integer from at least 5 to
 15. 16. The method of claim 11, wherein the self-assembled monolayer comprises substituted calixarenes comprising any of:

wherein each R⁰ can independently comprise: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and wherein each R¹ can independently comprise: —H; —OH; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof; an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X wherein X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof, wherein each R² can independently comprise any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and wherein n is an integer from at least 3 to
 15. 17. The method of claim 11, wherein the self-assembled monolayer comprises substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins comprising:

wherein each R⁰ can independently comprise: —R¹, —OR¹, or —SR¹; and wherein each R¹ can independently comprise: —H; any linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any combinations thereof; an aryl, heteroaryl, substituted aryl, substituted heteroaryl aryl, halogenated aryl, substituted halogenated aryl, a benzyl or a substituted benzyl, a biphenyl or substituted biphenyl, an aryloxy, arylthio, arylamine, or any substitutions thereof, —R²OH, —R²C(O)OH, —R²C(O)OR², —R²OR², —R²SR², —R²CHO, —R²X wherein X is a halogen atom, —R²C(O)NH₂, —R²C(O)NR², —R²NH₃ ⁺, —R²NH₂, —R²NO₂, —R²NR², —R²NR²R², —R²N₃, —R²OPO(OH)₂, —R²OSO(OH)₂, or any derivatives or combinations thereof, wherein each R² can independently comprise any identical or different, linear, branched, or cyclic C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkenyl, C₁-C₂₀ heteroalkynyl, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ haloalkynyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkenyl groups, C₁-C₂₀ halogenated heteroalkynyl groups, or any substitutions or combinations thereof, and wherein n is an integer from at least 5 to
 10. 18. A method for detecting an analyte comprising: collecting a gaseous sample; contacting the gaseous sample with one or more graphene varactors, each of the one or more graphene varactors comprising: a graphene layer; a self-assembled monolayer disposed on an outer surface of the graphene layer through non-covalent interactions between the self-assembled monolayer and a π-electron system of graphene; and wherein the self-assembled monolayer comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of pillarenes, substituted pillarenes, calixarenes, substituted calixarenes, peralkylated cyclodextrins, substituted peralkylated cyclodextrins, pyrenes, or substituted pyrenes, or derivatives thereof.
 19. The method of claim 18, further comprising measuring a differential response in an electrical property of the one or more graphene varactors due to binding of one or more analytes present in the gaseous sample.
 20. The method of claim 19, the electrical property selected from the group consisting of capacitance or resistance. 